10 Extraordinary Places Humans Have Adapted to Live

They say home is where the heart is. Sometimes that depends on what finances will allow. Sometimes it is simply where people have planted their roots. Looking back from an age of suburbs, skyscrapers, and smart homes, it can be easy to forget that millions of people still live in environments that most of us would consider harsh, unusual, or even inhospitable.

Yet throughout history, humans have repeatedly adapted to places that seemed impossible to inhabit. Whether driven by tradition, geography, necessity, or opportunity, communities have learned to thrive atop active volcanoes, beneath the earth, high in the trees, and even on the open sea. Rather than merely surviving, many have developed cultures and traditions uniquely suited to these extraordinary environments.

Here are ten extraordinary places where people have adapted to life in some of the world’s most remarkable settings.

Related: 10 of the Weirdest Places That Have Been Preserved

10 Korowai Treehouses

Like the elves of Lothlórien in The Lord of the Rings, the Korowai people of Papua build remarkable homes high in the rainforest canopy. Unlike Tolkien’s fictional elves, however, the Korowai developed these elevated homes as a practical response to life in one of the world’s most remote jungles.

As with many Indigenous peoples around the world, the Korowai have experienced exploitation by outsiders, leading many communities to remain cautious of visitors. Anthropologists have also documented ritual cannibalism among some Korowai groups in the past, although the practice has largely disappeared and should not be viewed as representative of the people today.

Recent research has shown that early reports exaggerated the idea that the Korowai lived exclusively in the treetops. While the towering treehouses are genuine and remain culturally significant, many families divide their time between elevated homes and ground-level villages. Treehouses traditionally provided protection from flooding, insects, rival groups, and, according to Korowai beliefs, harmful spirits that dwelled closer to the forest floor. Today they remain one of the world’s most distinctive forms of traditional architecture.^[1]

9 Aogashima, Japan

Imagine cooking breakfast without ever turning on a stove. That is one unusual advantage of living on the volcanic island of Aogashima. Of course, residents must also accept the fact that their entire community sits inside the caldera of an active volcano.

Located about 220 miles (358 km) south of Tokyo in the Philippine Sea, Aogashima is home to roughly 170 residents. The volcanic soil supports agriculture, while the surrounding waters provide abundant seafood. Steam vents created by the volcano are used for natural saunas and even for cooking food, giving the island one of the world’s most unusual outdoor kitchens.

Life on Aogashima has never been without risk. In 1785, a devastating eruption killed roughly half of the island’s inhabitants and forced the remaining survivors to flee. Remarkably, settlers gradually returned, and by the 1830s the island had been permanently reoccupied. Today, the Japan Meteorological Agency closely monitors the volcano, allowing residents to enjoy its benefits while remaining prepared for future activity.^[2]

8 The Bajau and Moken Sea Nomads

In the waters between the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia live the Bajau and Moken peoples, communities whose lives have long revolved around the sea. Many families traditionally lived aboard wooden houseboats, moving with the seasons and relying almost entirely on fishing, free diving, and trading at coastal ports.

The Bajau, often called “Sea Nomads,” possess one of the most remarkable human adaptations yet discovered. Genetic studies have shown that many Bajau have significantly larger spleens than neighboring populations, allowing them to remain underwater far longer while free diving. Some experienced divers routinely descend more than 200 feet (61 m) without scuba equipment and can remain underwater for several minutes.

The Moken are equally renowned for their ability to see clearly underwater without goggles, particularly as children. Researchers now believe this impressive skill results from a combination of learned eye control and adaptation rather than evolution alone. Together, these remarkable maritime communities demonstrate just how closely humans can adapt to life on the sea.^[3]

7 Mongolia’s Nomadic Horse Culture

Long before modern highways crisscrossed the country, Mongolia’s nomadic herders relied on horses to travel across the vast grasslands. More than three thousand years later, many families still follow seasonal migration routes with their livestock, maintaining one of the world’s oldest surviving nomadic lifestyles.

Horses remain central to Mongolian culture. They provide transportation, milk, meat, and hides, while fermented mare’s milk—known as airag—remains a traditional beverage. Horse racing also plays a starring role during the annual Naadam Festival, where young riders compete across races stretching many miles over the open steppe.

Nomadic families live in portable circular homes known as gers (often called yurts). Built from wooden frames covered with layers of felt, these homes can be dismantled and moved several times each year as herders follow fresh grazing land. Their circular design not only withstands Mongolia’s fierce winds but also symbolizes harmony, continuity, and the cycle of life in traditional Mongolian culture.^[4]

6 The Tibetan Highlands

Living at high altitude leaves many visitors short of breath, but the people of Tibet and other Indigenous communities throughout the Himalayas have adapted to conditions that would challenge most humans. Generations of life in the mountains have produced remarkable biological changes that allow them to thrive where oxygen levels are dramatically lower.

Rather than producing excessive red blood cells like lowland visitors, Tibetans possess genetic adaptations that help their bodies use oxygen more efficiently. These traits improve circulation, reduce strain on the heart, and contribute to healthier pregnancies and better infant survival at extreme elevations.

People have lived continuously on the Tibetan Plateau for thousands of years, making it one of humanity’s oldest permanently inhabited high-altitude regions. Genetic evidence even suggests that modern Tibetans inherited part of their remarkable altitude adaptation from the ancient Denisovans, an extinct branch of early humans. Few places better demonstrate humanity’s ability to adapt to one of Earth’s most demanding environments.^[5]

5 Manshiyat Nasser, Egypt

Imagine if your city relied on a single neighborhood to collect and recycle nearly all its garbage. On the eastern outskirts of Cairo lies Manshiyat Nasser, home to the Zabbaleen, a community of informal waste collectors who have spent generations performing one of the city’s most essential—and least glamorous—jobs.

For decades, the Zabbaleen have collected household waste from across Cairo, transporting it back to their neighborhood, where entire families sort through it by hand. Plastic, paper, glass, metals, and other reusable materials are separated for resale or recycling. Although the work is dirty and often hazardous, the community has become remarkably efficient. Some estimates suggest the Zabbaleen recycle as much as 80% to 90% of the waste they collect, a rate that exceeds many modern municipal recycling programs.

Life in Manshiyat Nasser is far from easy. Mountains of trash line many streets and rooftops, creating difficult living conditions and serious health concerns. Yet the community has built an entire economy around materials that others throw away. Although Cairo has introduced modern waste-management companies over the years, the Zabbaleen continue to play a vital role in the city’s recycling system, preserving a unique way of life born from necessity.^[6]

4 Cave Communities

Cave dwelling may sound like something left behind in prehistoric times, yet millions of people around the world still call caves home. From China to Tunisia and Australia, underground homes continue to provide practical shelter against harsh climates and challenging landscapes.

In China’s Shaanxi Province, millions of people live in traditional cave homes known as yaodongs, many of which have been occupied for generations. Meanwhile, hundreds of Berbers in southern Tunisia continue to inhabit cave dwellings first carved into the earth centuries ago. Although many residents have moved into modern housing, others remain to preserve these unique communities and their traditions.

Perhaps the most famous modern cave town is Coober Pedy in South Australia. After opals were discovered there in 1915, miners escaped the desert’s brutal climate by carving homes directly into the sandstone hillsides. Summer temperatures regularly exceed 113°F (45°C), while winter nights can dip to about 43°F (6°C). Underground, however, homes naturally remain around 75°F (24°C) year-round without air conditioning. Many feature multiple bedrooms, full kitchens, and spacious living areas, proving that cave living can be surprisingly comfortable even in one of Australia’s harshest environments.^[7]

3 Oymyakon, Russia

People often assume the North Pole is the coldest place where humans live. Still, that distinction belongs to Oymyakon, a remote village in eastern Siberia. Winter temperatures commonly fall below -58°F (-50°C), making it the coldest permanently inhabited settlement on Earth. By comparison, a pleasant summer afternoon might reach only 66°F (19°C).

Life here requires constant adaptation. Vehicles are often left running for hours—or even overnight—to prevent their engines from freezing solid. The ground remains permanently frozen, making conventional plumbing nearly impossible, and many buildings rely on outdoor toilets. Fresh produce is scarce, so residents traditionally depend on meat, fish, and dairy products to survive the long winters.

Oymyakon was once part of the Soviet Union’s vast gulag system, and many residents are descendants of former prisoners or people forcibly settled in the region during Joseph Stalin’s rule. Despite the brutal climate, several hundred people continue to call the village home, demonstrating humanity’s remarkable resilience in one of Earth’s most unforgiving environments.^[8]

2 New York City’s Underground Tunnels

When most people hear the phrase “mole people,” they imagine an entire hidden civilization living beneath New York City. Reality is less sensational but no less fascinating. For decades, some homeless individuals have sought shelter in abandoned subway tunnels, maintenance passages, and other forgotten spaces beneath the city.

These underground camps are located beneath some of Manhattan’s busiest neighborhoods. Residents often repurpose abandoned infrastructure into makeshift living quarters while trying to avoid law enforcement and transit workers. Life underground is dangerous, with risks ranging from passing trains and electrical hazards to disease, flooding, and violence. Conditions are harsh, but for some people experiencing homelessness, the tunnels have offered a measure of privacy unavailable on the streets.

Popular books and documentaries have sometimes exaggerated the size and organization of these underground communities, creating myths about a vast hidden society beneath New York. In reality, the number of people living in the tunnels has always been relatively small and has declined considerably over the years as outreach programs and redevelopment projects have expanded. Nevertheless, these forgotten passageways remain one of the most unusual places people have adapted to call home.^[9]

1 Abandoned Cargo Ships

One of global shipping’s darkest secrets is the growing number of cargo vessels abandoned by their owners while still carrying full crews. Unable to dock legally, lacking proper immigration paperwork, or hoping to recover months of unpaid wages, many sailors remain stranded aboard ships that have effectively become floating homes.

In recent years, thousands of seafarers working aboard hundreds of commercial vessels have found themselves trapped after shipowners failed to pay wages, fuel costs, or maintenance expenses. Supplies often run dangerously low, forcing crews to rely on charitable organizations and international maritime agencies for food, water, and medical assistance. Cases of ship abandonment have risen sharply in the years since the COVID-19 pandemic, turning what was once an occasional problem into a growing humanitarian crisis.

One of the most remarkable cases involved Egyptian engineer Abdul Nasser Saleh, who remained aboard an abandoned livestock carrier in the Red Sea for years while waiting to receive the wages he was owed. He feared that leaving the vessel would end any chance of recovering his earnings. When he finally returned home in 2024, he was reportedly owed approximately $178,000 in back pay.

For these crews, rusting freighters become unwilling homes—isolated communities adrift at sea, sustained only by the hope that someone will eventually bring them safely ashore. Few places better illustrate humanity’s ability to endure extraordinary circumstances than an abandoned ship with nowhere left to sail.^[10]